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"Islamic Jerusalem Studies is a field of Study offered by several academic colleges and universities that focuses on the region of the Holy Land from an Islamic perspective. It embraces both Islamic Studies and theology as well as history, geography, archeology and architecture. The project is an English project for change historical reality of al-Quds city. Change history and write a new history for al-Quds. Chance name of city for erase his history from minds of mew jeneration. The aim is make an Islamic Zionism like Christian Zionism for Muslim world. Chanced name of al Quds to IslamicJerusalem. But all Muslim known name of the city since 1000 years as al Quds al Sherif. The field Islamicjerusalem Studies is a relatively new field of academic inquiry concerned with the region known in Arabic as Bayt Al-Maqdis. Since its establishment in London in 1994, the founder of the field Professor Abd al-Fattah El-Awaisi, has encouraged promising academics to contribute to this endeavor by adopting and promoting a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach to the study of the region. The term Islamicjerusalem has three main elements: the land, its population, and a unique vision of inclusivity for the two.El- Awaisi, Abd al-Fattah, ‘Introducing Islamic Jerusalem’ (ALMI Press, 2006) Institutionalisation and development The field dates to the creation of ISRA (Academy for Islamic Jerusalem Studies) in 1994 in the United Kingdom. The Academy helped institutionalise the field in British higher education. The founder first taught a module at Undergraduate level entitled ‘Islamic Jerusalem’ at the al- Quds University and in the 1990s at the University of Stirling. This was followed by PhD candidates researching the field at Edinburgh, Strathclyde and Glasgow Caledonian Universities. The majority of the research emerged with the launch of the first institution dedicated specifically to the field of Islamic Jerusalem Studies, Al-Maktoum Institute in Dundee in 2001. The Institute supports original postgraduate research. It offers Masters and PhD programs in Islamic Jerusalem Studies accredited by the University of Aberdeen. Ten years later field started to expand beyond the United Kingdom, in particular within the Arab and Muslim World. Currently courses are offered in at universities in Egypt, Palestine and Malaysia. The Annual International Conference The first Annual International Conference took place in 1997. The 13 (as of 2010) Annual International conferences attracted distinguished scholars from around the world. The last conference took place at SOAS University of London in November 2010 and was entitled ‘Orientalist approaches to Islamic Jerusalem'. Publications The Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies The lack of available academic literature led to the establishment of the first issue of Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies in the winter of 1997. The Journal brings together findings from archaeological, theological, historical and geographical studies and is published in Arabic and English. Islamicjerusalem Studies Series ISRA acknowledges the most innovative and creative research within the field through initiatives such as the Islamic Jerusalem Prize for Young Scholars and the Al-Maqdisi Award.Al-Ahlas, Aisha. Islamic Research Academy 1999-2004, Background, Activities and Achievements. (Islamic Research Academy ISRA 2004) Books include: # نظرية جديدة لتفسير التصميم والتخطيط الهندسي لقبة الصخرة والفكر التخطيطي الهندسي الإسلامي في الفترة الإسلامية المبكرة. هيثم فتحي الرطروط # The First Islamic Conquest of Aelia (Islamic Jerusalem): A Critical Analytical Study of the Early Islamic Historical Narrations and Sources. Othman Ismael al-Tel # Islamic Research Academy: 1994 – 2004 Background, Activities and Achievements, With Special Reference to the New Field of Inquiry of Islamicjerusalem Studies. Aisha Al- Ahlas # The Architectural Development of Al-Aqsa Mosque in Islamic Jerusalem in the Early Islamic Period: Sacred Architecture in the Shape of the ‘Holy’. Haithem Fathi Al-Ratrout # Introducing Islamic Jerusalem. Abd al-Fattah M. El- Awaisi # Mapping Islamic Jerusalem: A Rediscovery of Geographical Boundaries. Khalid El-Awaisi # Islamic Jerusalem and its Christians: A History of Tolerance and Tensions. I B Tauris & Co Ltd (2007). Maher Abu-Munshar # Islamic Jerusalem Studies: A Guide. ALMI Press 2007. Abd al-Fattah El-Awaisi # البعد الأكاديمي والمعرفي لبيت المقدس: التعريف بأركان الحقل المعرفي الجديد في العالم العربي ( مجمع البحوث الإسلامية ومركز البحوث الاجتماعية والانسانية بجامعة العلوم والتكنولوجيا ( 2008تحرير: عبد الفتاح محمد العويسي # Geographical Dimensions of Islamic Jerusalem. Cambridge Scholars Publishing (2008) Khalid El-Awaisi (Editor) Further reading *Al-Tel, Othman. The first Islamic conquest of Aelia. Islamicjerusalem) A Critical Analytical Study of the Early Islamic Historical Narratives and Sources. ALMI Press. (2003) *El-Awaisi, Abd al-Fattah. Umar’s Assurance of Safety to the People of Aelia (Jerusalem): A critical Analytical Study of the Historical Sources. Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies. Vol. 3, No 2 (Summer 2000) pp 47–49. *Al-Ratrout, Haithem. The Architectural Development Of Al-Aqsa Mosque in The Early Islamic Period Sacred Architecture in the shape of the ‘Holy’ *Al-Ahlas, Aisha. Islamic Research Academy 1994-2994 Background, Activities and Achievements, with special reference to the New field of Inquiry Islamic Jerusalem Studies. (2004) *El-Awaisi, Khalid, Mapping Islamic Jerusalem, A Rediscovery of Geographical Boundaries. ALMI Press (2007) References External links * isra.org.uk * abdn.ac.uk History of Palestine (region) Historiography of Israel "
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"Command and Control (CAC) regulation finds common usage in academic literature and beyond. The relationship between CAC and environmental policy is considered in this article, an area that demonstrates the application of this type of regulation. However, CAC is not limited to the environmental sector and encompasses a variety of different fields. Definition Command and Control (CAC) Regulation can be defined as “the direct regulation of an industry or activity by legislation that states what is permitted and what is illegal”.McManus, P. (2009) Environmental Regulation. Australia: Elsevier Ltd. This approach differs from other regulatory techniques, e.g. the use of economic incentives, which frequently includes the use of taxes and subsidies as incentives for compliance.Baldwin, R., Cave, M., Lodge, M. (2011) Understanding Regulation: Theory, Strategy and Practice. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press The ‘command’ is the presentation of quality standards/targets by a government authority that must be complied with. The ‘control’ part signifies the negative sanctions that may result from non- compliance e.g. prosecution.Abbot, C. (2009) The Regulatory Enforcement and Sanctions ACT 2008. Environmental Law Review 38 CAC encompasses a variety of methods. Influencing behaviour through: laws, incentives, threats, contracts and agreements. In CAC, there is a perception of a problem and the solution for its control is developed and subsequently implemented.Holling, C., Meffe, G. (1996) Command and Control and the Pathology of Natural Resource Management. "Conservation Biology. 10: 2. pp. 328-337." In the case of environmental policy and regulation, the CAC approach strongly relies on the use of standards to ensure the improvements in the quality of the environment. The CAC approach uses three main types of standards. These are ambient standards, emission standards, and technology standards. Although these standards can be used individually, it is also possible to use the standards in combination. In fact, in most pollution control programs, it is the case where there is a combination of standards being implemented. Although environmental policy has a long history, a proliferation of policy making in this area occurred in the 1970s and continued to today. The CAC approach dominated policy in industrial nations during this decade because the general focus was on that of remedial policies rather than more comprehensive prevention techniques.Bocher, M. (2011) A theorectical framework for explaining the choice of instruments in environmental policy. "Forest Policy and Economics'. Elsevier Whilst many view CAC negatively, direct regulatory control is still used in many countries' environmental policy. Enforcement and compliance To deliver its objectives, direct regulation must ensure the highest level of compliance possible. This can be achieved through appropriate implementation and enforcement. Non-compliance to CAC regulation presents a serious challenge to its effectiveness The manner in which CAC is enforced differs between countries. For example, in the US, some regulators who are tasked with implementing CAC techniques are given rule-making powers. Whereas in the UK, regulatory standards are more commonly set by departments of government. This is achieved through both primary and secondary legislation which is subsequently exacted by regulatory bureaucracies. Regulation differs within countries as well, in the UK the current regulatory sanctioning system possesses variations between powers and practices among regulators.Macrory, R. (2006) Regulatory Justice: Making Sanctions Effective. Final Report Enforcement of CAC often involves the use of uniform sanctions, this can result in small businesses feeling the burdens of regulation more severely than companies of a larger size. Strengths and weaknesses of approach A CAC approach in policy is used for several reasons. It has been proposed that by imposing fixed standards with the force of law behind them, CAC can respond more quickly to activities which do not abide by the set standards. It also has benefits politically as the regulator (often the government) is seen to be acting swiftly and decisively. It is far from a problem free form of regulation, the 1980s in particular saw CAC subject to widespread criticism. A good number of the critics tend to favour market-based strategies and are often dubious of the merits of governmental regulatory approaches Some issues highlighted include: *Regulatory capture: The concern here is that the relationship between regulators and the regulated may lead to the interests of the public being neglected. In this situation it is possible for the relationship to become too close, leading to capture. This may result in the regulator protecting the interests of the regulated. *Legalism: Command and control has been accused of stifling competition and enterprise. It has been posited that this is an inevitable consequence of the inflexible and complicated rules that can be created by the approach. Over-regulation can result, which in turn can lead to ‘over-inclusive’ regulation. *Standard- setting: Selecting the appropriate standards when implementing a CAC regime is crucial if the regulation is to avoid causing detriment to those that it regulates. This is a challenging obstacle to overcome as the amount of information required can be severe. *Enforcement: This constitutes a very significant dilemma for a CAC regulatory approach. One of the key issues is the expense of enforcement, especially when a complex system of rules has been developed. There are also problems of scope. Critics of CAC often point to incentive-based regulation as an alternative with terms used such as smart regulation, management-based regulation, responsive regulation and meta- regulation. Possible benefits of this approach may include cheaper administration costs and a reduction in the risk of regulatory capture. However the view that incentive-based regulation is radically different from CAC has been scrutinised.FC Simon (2017). Meta-regulation in practice: Beyond normative views of morality and rationality. Routledge The advantages can be exaggerated, a complex system of rules is often necessary to allow an effective system, this can cause many incentive-based schemes to appear to replicate some of the characteristics of CAC. Inspection and enforcement may also be essential to prevent evasion of liability, again resembling CAC and possibly removing the posited benefits in terms of cost. While practices may be changed at a superficial level through the use of CAC, it may not be able to achieve the changes of behaviour necessary for more sustainable environmental practices.Gunningham, N., Grabosky, P. (1998) Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy. USA: Oxford University Press. There are some commentators on the topic who prefer to use ‘direct regulatory instrument’ instead of ‘command and control’ instrument because of the negative connotations surrounding the term.Goulder, L., Parry, I. (2008) Instrument Choice in Environmental Policy. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy. 2: 2. pp. 152-174. Efficiency Much of the literature on regulatory instruments considers efficiency in terms of monetary costs. CAC has been labelled by many critics as ‘inefficient’ as a system that spends resources but generates little revenue.Gunningham, N., Sinclair, D. (2002) Leaders and Laggards: Next Generation Environmental Regulation. UK: Greenleaf Publishing Ltd. The cost of compliance is perceived to be high, which can result in costs that are higher than the sanctions for non-compliance. A summary of 10 studies demonstrated significant differences in cost between CAC and least cost alternatives.Tietenberg, Tom (1991) Economic Instruments for Environmental Regulation. "In: Helm, D., Pearce, D. (ed.) Economic Policy towards the Environment. Oxford: Oxford University Press." Empirical data suggests that CAC regulations, especially government subsidies in agriculture,"Government Subsidies for Agriculture May Exacerbate Deforestation, says new UN report". Sustainable Development Goals. United Nations. 3 September 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2020. often fuel environmental damage, deforestation and overfishing in particular. Some have moved to defend certain aspects of a CAC approach, arguing against the commonly held belief that these regimes are inherently inefficient. Economics incentives are frequently referred to as a considerably more efficient approach to regulation. The most commonly used incentives in this method relate to tax. The administrative costs of tax collection can be understated. Advocates of incentives have been accused of making simplifying assumptions and not fully taking into account the costs of administrating tax systems.Cole, D., Grossman, P. (2002) Toward a total-cost approach to environmental instrument choice. 20. pp. 223-241. In some circumstances, CAC regulation can end up being a less costly option. Whilst economic instruments may act to reduce compliance costs, in certain cases their total costs may actually be higher, This may stem from the high level of monitoring that is required to make an incentivised method viable and successful. Environmental regulation Application The use of Command and Control in regulation involves the government or similar body to “command” the reduction of pollution (e.g. setting emissions levels) levels and to “control” the manner in which it is achieved (e.g. by installing pollution-control technologies). It has been argued that CAC has the potential to be effective under certain conditions. Often its effectiveness can be determined by whether the problem has a diffuse or a point source. A CAC approach is relatively compatible with point source and regulation of these can often achieve success. On the other hand, CAC struggles to appropriately tackle issues that have a diffuse, non- point source.Landy, M. Rubin, C. (2001) Civic Environmentalism: A new approach to Policy. Washington DC: George Marshall Institute Evans draws on the following example: “it is relatively easy to regulate the emissions from 10 large coal burning power stations in a single country, but far less easy to monitor the emissions caused by millions of motorists or the effluent discharges from tens of thousands of farms across the world.” In Environmental Policy, CAC is characterised by 3 different types of standards, the use of the standards is determined by various factors, including the nature of the environmental problem and the administrative capacities of the governing body:Ogus, A. (2004) Comparing Regulatory Systems: Institutions, processes and legal forms in industrialised countries. In: Cook, P., Kirkpatrick, C. Minogue, M., Parker, D. (Eds.) UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. *Environmental Standards. These are centrally driven standards. A legally enforceable numerical limit is often used to determine the 'standard', but the term can be used more broadly, describing more general rules about acceptability. *Target Standards. The condition of the environment into which the pollutant enters is central to these standards. It can be subdivided into ambient and receptor standards. Ambient standards set the targets that apply to the regulators and policy makers. Whereas Receptor standards apply to the regulated and state that a specified maximum level is not to be exceeded. *Performance Standards. These determine what releases of a pollutant into the environment are acceptable. It has been suggested that if compliance reaches appropriate levels, there may be a good degree of certainty of environmental results.Latin, H. (1985) Ideal versus Real Regulatory efficiency: implementation of uniform standards and “fine-tuning” regulatory reforms. Stanford Law Review. 37. 1267-1332. CAC regulation has the potential to lead to a more rapid resolution of certain environmental policy objectives. It may also provide clarity to those that are subject to the regulation. There may be a clearer understanding of what is required and how to meet those requirements. It has been argued that the use of the CAC approach to solve environmental problems can result in unexpected consequences if the application is conducted uncritically. Much of environmental policy to date has been associated with the term Disjointed Incrementalism. This term was coined by LindblomLindblom, C. (1979) Still muddling, not yet through. Public Administration Review. 517-526. and describes the small and often unplanned changes that have occurred in the field of environmental regulation. These changes in regulation often address small-scale problems with laws tuned towards the particular area of concern. This approach is criticised on the grounds that it does not take into account the wider causes of environmental issues. International environmental agreements =Montreal Protocol= The 1987 Montreal Protocol is commonly cited as a CAC success story at international level. The aim of the agreement was to limit the release of Chlorofluorocarbons into the atmosphere and subsequently halt the depletion of Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. There were a number of factors that contributed to Montreal’s success, these included:Speth, J., Haas, P. (2006) Global Environmental Governance. USA: Island Press.Falkner, R (2005) The Business of Ozone Layer Protection: Corporate Power in Regime Evolution. In: Levy, D., Newell, P. (2005) The Business of Global Environmental Governance. pp. 169-196. Cambridge Mass & London: MIT Press. *The problem and solution were both clearly defined and supported by industry (albeit not initially) *The Ozone hole was easily measurable *There was an effective scientific lobbying alliance that played a key role in convincing the US Government and the commercial sector (in particular DuPont, then one of the largest manufacturers of CFCs) Defining this agreement as a CAC approach is slightly problematic as the agreement does not directly instruct states how to meet their targets. However, the aim of the Montreal Protocol has been to eliminate the source of CFC emissions, as a result the only really feasible way for a state to achieve this would be through a ban on substances related to Ozone depletion. Montreal is considered by some to be a 'special case' of a successful CAC approach. =Climate change= The traditional model of command and control typically involved areas of environmental concern being dealt with by national governments. In recent decades, transboundary environmental problems have risen in prominence. This shift has exposed many of the limitations of a command and control approach when it is applied to a larger and more complex arena.Evans, J. (2012) Environmental Governance. Elsevier. Climate change is often used to exemplify the perceived failings of this regulatory approach. Climate change is good example of a concern that is complex, full of uncertainties and difficult for many people to understand.Downie, D. (2005) Global environmental policy: governance through regimes. In: Axelrod, R., Downie, D., Vig, N. (Eds.) The Global Environment: Institutions, Law and Policy. 2nd ed. Washington DC: CQ pass. pp. 64-82. This may go someway in explaining the apparent incompatibility of climate change and a CAC approach. Mitigating climate change requires action of a much more proactive nature than traditional CAC models are able to deliver. One reason for the lack of compatibility with many international environmental agreements is the manner in which the international community is organised. International law cannot be implemented in the same way as law at national level.Hunter, D., Salzman, J., Zaelke, D. (2002) International Environmental Law and Policy. New York: Foundation Press Given that the CAC approach relies heavily on prohibiting certain activities and then enforcing it through sanctions makes the scaling-up to international level problematic. Without a strong international enforcement body it is unlikely that CAC will be an effective tool for dealing with most transboundary environmental issues, climate change included. Future of command and control regulation in environmental policy The international nature of many contemporary environmental issues makes CAC regulatory approaches difficult. Since the 1970s enthusiasm for the implementation of economic incentives for regulation has been on the increase. This is due, in part, to the disenchantment with command and control.Harrington, W., Morgenstern, R. (2004) Economic Instruments versus Command and Control. Resources. pp. 13-17. The shift away from CAC does not seem to be slowing, the increased participation of a variety of actors may be the answer. The role of environmental NGOs in policy making has changed drastically in recent decades. Their numbers and the influence they exert over national governments and negotiations at international level has risen. The involvement of NGOs has assisted the development of international policy in a number of ways. A great deal of environmental policy has been influenced by research collected by these organisations. They also act as whistleblowers, updating the regulators of progress and compliance. A blend of different approaches, involving a range of actors and regulatory types may be the best answer. However, it is likely that many governments will persist with CAC because of the political benefits and the fact that it is not always as inflexible and inefficient as many economists would suggest.McCormick, J. (1999) The Role of Environmental NGOs in International Regimes. In: Vig, N., Axelrod, R. (Eds.) The Global Environment: Institutions, Laws and Policy. UK: Earthscan. References Economics of regulation "