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"The Austromarxist principle of national personal autonomy ("personal principle"), developed by Otto Bauer in his 1907 book Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie (The Nationalities Question and Social Democracy) was seen by him a way of gathering the geographically divided members of the same nation to "organize nations not in territorial bodies but in simple association of persons", thus radically disjoining the nation from the territory and making of the nation a non-territorial association. The other ideological founders of the concept were another Austromarxist, Karl Renner, in his 1899 essay Staat und Nation (State and Nation),All of Renner's essay is reproduced in an English translation in and the Jewish Labour Bundist Vladimir Medem, in his 1904 essay Di sotsial-demokratie un di natsionale frage (Social Democracy and the National Question). 1943\. “Di sotsial-demokratie un di natsionale frage” (1904). Vladimir Medem: Tsum tsvantsikstn yortsayt. New York: New York: Der Amerikaner Reprezentants fun Algemeynem Yidishn Arbeter- Bund (‘Bund’) in Poyln, pp. 173-219. Medem In his 1904 text, Medem exposed his version of the concept: > "Let us consider the case of a country composed of several national groups, > e.g. Poles, Lithuanians and Jews. Each national group would create a > separate movement. All citizens belonging to a given national group would > join a special organisation that would hold cultural assemblies in each > region and a general cultural assembly for the whole country. The assemblies > would be given financial powers of their own: either each national group > would be entitled to raise taxes on its members, or the state would allocate > a proportion of its overall budget to each of them. Every citizen of the > state would belong to one of the national groups, but the question of which > national movement to join would be a matter of personal choice and no > authority would have any control over his decision. The national movements > would be subject to the general legislation of the state, but in their own > areas of responsibility they would be autonomous and none of them would have > the right to interfere in the affairs of the others". Supporters This principle was later adopted by various parties, among them the Jewish Socialist Workers Party from its foundation in 1906, the Jewish Labour Bund at its August 1912 Conference (when the motion "On National Cultural Autonomy" became part of the Bund's program), the Armenian social democrats, the Russian Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) at its June 1917's Ninth Congress,Bill Bowring, "Burial and resurrection, Karl Renner's controversial influence on the "national question" in Russia", in the first Ottoman then Greek Socialist Workers' Federation of Thessaloniki, the left- wing Zionists (Hashomer Hatzair) in favour of a binational solution in Palestine, the Jewish Folkspartei (inspired by Simon Dubnov, who had developed a concept of Jewish autonomy close to Bauer's), and the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania (DAHR) after 1989. Opponents The whole concept was strongly opposed by the Bolsheviks. Stalin's pamphlet Marxism and the National Question (1913) was their ideological reference on the matter, along with Lenin's Critical Remarks on the National Question (December 1913), in particular in the chapter "Cultural-National Autonomy". (Stalin was later People's Commissar of Nationalities from 1917 - 1923.) Lenin's and Stalin's critiques of the national personal autonomy concept were later joined by the Catalan Andreu Nin in his article The Austrian School, National Emancipation Movements (1935). Implementation It was adopted as an official policy in the short-lived Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920) and in the interwar Estonian Republic (1925 Law on Personal Autonomy), and it was included in the Declaration Concerning the Protection of Minorities in Lithuania by the League of Nations in 1925. The autonomous representative structure of the Palestinian Jews between 1920 and 1949, the Asefat ha-Nivharim, can also be considered as an implementation of the national personal autonomy principle. Since the fall of the Soviet Union and its satellites regimes, the national personal autonomy is the principle on which legislation applying to ethnic minorities has been enacted such as Estonia's (1993 National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act), Hungary's Act LXXVII of 1993 on the Rights of National and Ethnic Minorities, Latvia's 1991 Law on Unrestricted Development and Right to Cultural Autonomy of Latvia's Nationalities and Ethnic Groups, Lithuania's 1989 Law on Ethnic Minorities, Russia's 1996 Law on National-Cultural Autonomies, and Ukraine's 1992 Law on National Minorities. See also *Millet (Ottoman Empire) *Jewish Autonomism - Kehilla - Asefat ha-Nivharim *Non-territorial language policy *Consociationalism *Plurinationalism Sources Marxism Minority rights Bundism Political science terminology Autonomy "
"Blade grinder for home grinding of coffee beans and similar things Blade on a rotary lawn mower A blade grinder, also known as propeller grinder, is a machine that chops material while mixing it, by means of a high-speed spinning blade. Applications of blade grinders for preparing foods include numerous electric kitchen appliances such as blenders (including immersion blenders), food processors, some garbage disposals, and some coffee grinders. The terms "blade grinder" and "propeller grinder" are in popular use to distinguish the blade grinder type of coffee grinder from other types. Other consumer applications include rotary lawn mowers. Design A blade grinder may be considered a type of hammermill. A blade grinder resembles a meat grinder in that both have propeller-shaped cutting blades. However, meat grinders (and food mills) use a scissor cutting action as the blades rotate against a perforated metal plate. Meat grinder blades rotate at a much slower speed than blade grinders, which may rotate at speeds as high as 20,000 to 30,000 rpm; for example, the Steele model mixer-grinder by Indian appliance manufacturer Preethi has a no-load speed of 23,500 rpm and loaded speed of 11,500rpm. Blade grinders also resemble industrial blade (propeller) mixers, which like meat grinders rotate at much slower speeds. Unlike blade grinders, these mixers do not alter (break, cut, shred, macerate, pulverize) the material being mixed. The high speed of rotation of blade grinders is necessary to achieve their cutting action. In a blender application, the high speed of rotation contributes to shearing, which in turn contributes to aeration and the formation of emulsions. These are desirable qualities in many food preparations. A blade grinder can run on batteries or more commonly on utility electricity. History Blade grinders are a 20th-century innovation that followed the adaptation of propellers to small motorboats. Blade grinders exploit a feature of propellers that is undesirable in the propulsion systems of boats and airplanes: the higher the rotation speed, the more energy is spent in shearing and cutting rather than in pushing. Rotary lawn mowers were not developed until small engines became powerful enough to run the blades at a speed high enough to cut. Commercial blenders were developed in the 1920s. With increasing miniaturization of the electric motor, the first consumer blender, the Waring Blendor, was developed in the 1930s, and a canister blender, the Osterizer, entered the market in 1946. The first immersion blenders were patented in the 1950s. Types =Coffee grinders= Special purpose coffee grinders usually are either blade grinders or burr grinders: blade grinders being less expensive and having additional uses, burr grinders giving a better quality of grind. Special purpose spice grinders usually are either blade grinders or mortar and pestle (or related tools). Low cost coffee blade grinders for use in home kitchens frequently are difficult to clean. The Joy of Cooking (1997 edition) suggests a blade grinder may be cleaned by grinding a few tablespoons of sugar then wiping it out. Another suggestion is to clean around the blade with a soft brush or a damp cloth. Because these blade grinders frequently are used for grinding both coffee beans and spices, cleaning them well is important to prevent unwanted transfer of flavors. Some people keep two blade grinders, one for coffee and the other for spices. =Pharmacy, restaurant, and laboratory grinders= Blade grinders for home grinding of coffee beans are commonly used for grinding spices. However, larger, more powerful versions are used, particularly in Asia. Commonly found in pharmacies in China for grinding Chinese traditional medicine, the blades of this style of grinder can rotate at 28,000 rpm or more and are capable of reducing hard dried roots to powder. This type of grinder is also used in restaurants for spices as well as for laboratory use. =Blenders= Blenders are blade grinders designed specifically for use with wet ingredients. Blenders are popular tools for production of purées and pastes, using both the cutting and shearing effects of high speed blades. =Food processor= A food processor is similar to a blender. The primary difference is that food processors use interchangeable blades and disks (attachments) rather than a fixed blade. Also, their bowls are wider and shorter, a more proper shape for the solid or semi-solid foods usually worked in a food processor. File:Blade grinder used to separate cardamom seeds from pods.jpgBlade grinder used to separate cardamom seeds from pods File:Kitchen blender blades.pngBlades from a blender (left) and food processor (right) See also * Blade * Cavitation * Impeller * Grinding machine * Milling machine * Mixer (cooking) References External links * Food grinding tools Food preparation appliances Propellers "
"Mehdi Sahabi ( 4 February 1944 in Qasvin (Iran) – November 9, 2009 in Paris (France) ) was an Iranian translator, painter, and writer. Born in the provincial Iranian capitol of Qazvin in 1944, Sahabi translated novels originally in English, French, and Italian into Persian. He left his studies at the Fine Arts Faculty of the University of Tehran and Rome University of Fine Arts unfinished. His translation of Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time, which he spent 11 years on, is considered his finest. He also translated Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary and Sentimental Education, Charles Dickens' David Copperfield, All Men are Mortal by Simone de Beauvoir, Stendhal's The Red and the Black, The Baron in the Trees by Italo Calvino and Louis-Ferdinand Céline's Death on Credit. Sahabi was awarded Iran's Book of the Year award, after which no translator won for 18 years. He died in Paris of a heart attack on November 9, 2009. His funeral took place in Tehran. References 1944 births 2009 deaths Persian-language writers Iranian translators 20th-century translators "