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"Triglav (; ; ), with an elevation of , is the highest mountain in Slovenia and the highest peak of the Julian Alps. The mountain is the pre-eminent symbol of the Slovene nation. It is the centrepiece of Triglav National Park, Slovenia's only national park. Triglav was also the highest peak in Yugoslavia before Slovenia's independence in 1991. Name Various names have been used for the mountain through history. An old map from 1567 named it Ocra mons, whereas Johann Weikhard von Valvasor named it Krma in the second half of the 17th century. According to the German mountaineer and professor Adolf Gstirner, the name Triglav first appeared in written sources as Terglau in 1452, but the original source has been lost. The next known occurrence of Terglau is cited by Gstirner and is from a court description of the border in 1573. Early forms of the name Triglav also include Terglau in 1612, Terglou in 1664 and Terklou around 1778–89. The name is derived from the compound *Tri-golvъ (literally 'three-head'—that is, 'three peaks'), which may be understood literally because the mountain has three peaks when viewed from much of Upper Carniola. It is unlikely that the name has any connection to the Slavic deity Triglav. In the local dialect, the name is pronounced Tərgwò (with a second-syllable accent) in contrast to standard Slovene Tríglav.Bezlaj, France. 2005. Etimološki slovar slovenskega jezika, vol. 4. Ljubljana: Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, p. 224. The highest peak is sometimes also called Big Mount Triglav () to distinguish it from Little Mount Triglav (, ) immediately to the east. History The first recorded ascent of Triglav was achieved in 1778, at the initiative of the industrialist and polymath Sigmund Zois. According to the most commonly cited report, published in the newspaper Illyrisches Blatt in 1821 by the historian and geographer Johann Richter, these were the surgeon Lovrenz Willomitzer (written as Willonitzer by Richter), the chamois hunter Štefan Rožič, and the miners Luka Korošec and Matevž Kos. According to a report by Belsazar Hacquet in his Oryctographia Carniolica, this happened towards the end of 1778, by two chamois hunters, one of them being Luka Korošec, and one of his former students, whose name is not mentioned. Triglav's height was first measured on 23 September 1808 by Valentin Stanič. The first to put the name of the mountain on a map, written as Mons Terglou, was Joannes Disma Floriantschitsch de Grienfeld, who in 1744 published the map Ducatus Carniolae Tabula Chorographica. The first map its name appeared on written as Triglav was Zemljovid Slovenske dežele in pokrajin (Map of Slovene Lands and Provinces) by Peter Kosler, completed from 1848 until 1852 and published in Vienna in 1861. During World War II, Triglav symbolically captured the primary drive by the Slovene resistance to the Fascist and Nazi armies. The Slovene Partisans wore the Triglav cap from 1942 until after 1944. Triglav was the highest peak of the now defunct Yugoslavia; it was both countries highest and most prominent peak and, together with the southern Vardar River (now in North Macedonia), was the symbol of Yugoslavian "brotherhood and unity". Landmarks Aljaž Tower Aljaž Tower at the top of the mountain At the top of the mountain stands a small metal structure, the Aljaž Tower (). It acts as a storm shelter and a triangulation point. Along with Triglav, it is also a landmark of Slovenia and a symbol of the Slovenes and Slovene territorial sovereignty. The tower's namesake was the priest, mountaineer and patriot Jakob Aljaž. In early 1895, he drew up, with a piece of chalk on the floor of his room in the parish of Dovje, plans for a cylindrical tower with a flag on its top. In April that year he purchased the summit of Triglav for the sum of one Austro-Hungarian gulden. Having done so, he secured himself the right to erect a building on the mountain top. The tower was constructed from iron and zinc coated sheet steel by Anton Belec from Šent Vid nad Ljubljano. He and four workers brought the parts of the tower to the summit of Triglav and put the tower together in only five hours on 7 August 1895. The opening took place that same day. Aljaž donated the shelter to the Slovene Alpine Society. In the beginning, there were three four-legged chairs, a summit register, a spirit stove, and the image Triglav Panorama by Marko Pernhart in the tower. It was later repainted and renovated several times by Alojz Knafelc and others. In the Communist era, as the highest point of the former Yugoslavia, it was painted red and decorated with a red star. However, it has now more or less been restored to its original appearance. The star was removed shortly before the dissolution of Yugoslavia. On the proclamation of Slovene independence in June 1991, the flag of Slovenia was raised on top of the tower. Stanič Shelter In 1895, due to a lack of space, Aljaž also commissioned the building of the Stanič Shelter. It is located below the top of Triglav and is named after the poet and mountaineer Valentin Stanič. The shelter has dimensions of and has room for 8 people sitting or 16 standing. Originally it also had a wooden door, benches, a table, and a chair. Its significance diminished after the Kredarica Lodge was erected in 1896. Triglav Glacier Remains of the Triglav Glacier in 2002 The Triglav Glacier () was located below the summit on the karstified Triglav Plateaus (), part of the northeastern side of the mountain. Covering over at the end of the 19th century, the glacier had shrunk to by 1946, and after further shrinkage had fallen into two parts by 1992. By 2011 it covered an area of only 1–3 hectares, depending on the season. It was no longer considered a glacier in 2019. Cultural significance Folk literature The Triglav area is the setting of an old Slovene folk tale concerning a hunter seeking a treasure guarded by an enchanted chamois buck named Zlatorog (Goldhorn, after its golden horns). Arts Romantic view of Triglav by the Carinthian Slovene painter Marko Pernhart The earliest known depiction of Triglav is on the front page of the work Oryctographia Carniolica, written by Belsazar Hacquet. It was a copper engraving made in 1778 by C. Conti after a drawing by Franz Xaver Baraga. Among later visual artists who depicted Triglav, the most well known are Anton Karinger (1829–1870) from Ljubljana, Marko Pernhart (1824–1871) from Klagenfurt, Valentin Hodnik (1896–1935) from Stara Fužina, Edo Deržaj (1904–1980) from Ljubljana, and more recently Marjan Zaletel (born 1945), living in Ljubljana. Among the musical works related to Triglav, a special place is held for the poem Oh, Triglav, My Home (). It was written in 1894 by the priest and poet Matija Zemljič and quickly became very popular among Slovene mountaineers. In 2007, its first stanza, accompanied by a melody of Jakob Aljaž, became the official anthem of the Alpine Association of Slovenia. An instrumental version of the poem, written by Bojan Adamič, is part of the start and end credits of the annual ski jumping broadcasts from Planica. The first Slovene-language full-length film, recorded in 1931 by Janko Ravnik, was titled In the Kingdom of the Goldhorn () and features an ascent by a group of students to the top of Triglav. The second Slovene full- length film, recorded the following year, was titled The Slopes of Mount Triglav (). It was directed by Ferdo Delak and was a romantic story featuring a wedding on the top of Triglav. Since 1968, Triglav has become a theme of avant-garde artists. The first instance was a manifestation by the art group OHO, called Mount Triglav, which took place in December 1968 at Ljubljana's Congress Square. In 2004, the group IRWIN produced a series of paintings named Like to Like/ Mount Triglav. In 2007, an artistic performance was held atop Mount Triglav by the artists Janez Janša (director), Janez Janša (visual artist) and Janez Janša (performance artist) called Mount Triglav on Mount Triglav. National symbol Coat of arms of Slovenia, with a stylized depiction of Triglav A Slovene Partisan triglavka A stylized depiction of Triglav's distinctive shape is the central element of the Slovene coat of arms, designed by the sculptor Marko Pogačnik, and is in turn featured on the flag of Slovenia. Alongside San Marino and Slovakia, Slovenia is the only other country in Europe and one of the few in the world to feature a mountain on its coat-of-arms. Formerly, it was featured on the coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia. The first to depict Triglav as the symbol of the Slovenes was the architect Jože Plečnik, who in 1934 put it besides other coats-of-arms of the nations of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on the coat of the statue of the Mother of God in front of the parish church in Bled. During World War II, the stylised Triglav was the symbol of the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation resistance movement. The distinctive three-pronged caps worn by Slovene Partisans during World War II were known as triglavkas. A relief map of the mountain is the design on the national side of the Slovene 50 eurocent coin. The former Slovene president Milan Kučan once proclaimed that it is a duty of every Slovenian person to climb Triglav at least once in their lifetime. See also * Triglav Lakes Valley Notes References External links * Julian Alps: Triglav Hribi.net. Detailed information and images. * Julian Alps: Triglav. SummitPost.org. Detailed information, maps and images. Mountains of the Julian Alps Triglav National Park Two-thousanders of Slovenia Highest points of countries National symbols of Slovenia "
"In economics, a local currency is a currency that can be spent in a particular geographical locality at participating organisations. A regional currency is a form of local currency encompassing a larger geographical area. A local currency acts as a complementary currency to a national currency, rather than replacing it, and aims to encourage spending within a local community, especially with locally owned businesses. Such currencies may not be backed by a national government nor be legal tender. About 300 complementary currencies, including local currencies, are listed in the Complementary Currency Resource Center worldwide database. Terminology Some definitions: * Complementary currency - is used as a complement to a national currency, as a medium of exchange, which is usually not legal tender. * Community currency - a complementary currency used by a group with a common bond, such as residents of a locality, association, or members of a business or online community. * Local currency - a complementary currency used in a locality. * Regional currency - a local currency where the locality is a larger region. * Auxiliary currency, microcurrency, Eco-Money - less common synonyms for community or local currency. (see for example Douthwaite & Wagman 1999) * Private currency - a currency issued by an individual, business or non-governmental organization. Complementary currencies are a type of private currency. * Sectoral currency - a complementary currency used within one economic sector, such as education or health care. * Alternative currency - generally, a synonym for complementary currency, referring to a currency designed to work in conjunction with the national currency; less often refers to a type of private currency which attempts to supplant or circumvent the national currency. Benefits The Wörgl experiment illustrates some of the common characteristics and major benefits of local currencies.Lietaer, Bernard, The Future of Money, Century, 2002. 1\. Local currencies with negative interest rate or demurrage tend to circulate much more rapidly than national currencies. The same amount of currency in circulation is employed more times and results in far greater overall economic activity. It produces greater benefit per unit. The higher velocity of money is a result of the negative interest rate which encourages people to spend the money more quickly. 2\. Local currencies enable the community to more fully use its existing productive resources, especially unemployed labor, which has a catalytic effect on the rest of the local economy. They are based on the premise that the community is not fully using its productive capacities, because of a lack of local purchasing power. The alternative currency is used to increase demand, resulting in a greater exploitation of productive resources. So long as the local economy is functioning at less than full capacity, the introduction of local currency need not be inflationary, even when it results in a significant increase in total money supply and total economic activity. 3\. Since local currencies are only accepted within the community, their usage encourages the purchase of locally produced and locally-available goods and services. Thus, for any level of economic activity, more of the benefit accrues to the local community and less drains out to other parts of the country or the world. For instance, construction work undertaken with local currencies employs local labor and uses as far as possible local materials. The enhanced local effect becomes an incentive for the local population to accept and use the scrips. 4\. Some forms of complementary currency can promote fuller use of resources over a much wider geographic area and help bridge the barriers imposed by distance. The Fureai kippu system in Japan issues credits in exchange for assistance to senior citizens. Family members living far from their parents can earn credits by offering assistance to the elderly in their local community. The credits can then be transferred to their parents and redeemed by them for local assistance. Airline frequent flyer miles are a form of complementary currency that promotes customer-loyalty in exchange for free travel. The airlines offer most of the coupons for seats on less heavily sold flights where some seats normally go empty, thus providing a benefit to customers at relatively low cost to the airline. 5\. While most of these currencies are restricted to a small geographic area or a country, through the Internet electronic forms of complementary currency can be used to stimulate transactions on a global basis. In China, Tencent's QQ coins are a virtual form of currency that has gained wide circulation. QQ coins can be bought for Renminbi and used to buy virtual products and services such as ringtones and on-line video game time. They can also be obtained through on- line exchange for goods and services at about twice the Renminbi price, by which additional 'money' is being directly created. Though virtual currencies are not 'local' in the tradition sense, they do cater to the specific needs of a particular community, a virtual community. Once in circulation, they add to the total effective purchasing power of the on-line population as in the case of local currencies. The Chinese government has begun to tax the coins as they are exchanged from virtual currency to actual hard currency.China Taxes Online Game Players KerryOnWorld, December 7, 2008 Difficulties and criticisms Local currencies and the Transition Towns movement in the UK have been criticized for failing to address the needs of the wider population, especially lower socio-economic groups. Such local currency initiatives have been more widely criticized as having limited success in stimulating spending in local economies, and as an unrealistic strategy to reduce carbon emissions.The Undercover Economist on Local Currency Modern local currencies Modern local currencies can be classified into the following distinct types: 1\. Transition currency based on the local currencies used by the Transition Towns movement in the UK. They include Brixton Pound and Bristol Pound in the UK, BerkShares in the USA, and Salt Spring Dollars in Canada. Salt Spring Dollars are a community currency issued by the Salt Spring Island Monetary Foundation. The currency is used by both tourists and local residents of Salt Spring Island. Transition currencies are payment voucher- based systems that are exchangeable with the national currency. Between 2002-2014 many experiments in local currency took this form. Such currencies aim to raise the resilience of local economies by encouraging re-localisation of buying and food production. The drive for this change has arisen from a range of community-based initiatives and social movements. The Transition Towns movement originating in the UK has used local currencies for re- localisation in the face of energy descent from peak oil and climate change. Other drives include movements against Clone townClone Town Britain survey: results reveals national identity crisis The new economics foundation, 6 June 2005 and Big-box trends. 2\. Rewards currency based on the frequent flyer model. Consumer spends cash with participating businesses who issue rewards points in a local currency. These rewards points can be used to offset cash prices in future purchases. An example is Oakland Grown in Oakland, CA. 3\. Mutual Credit currency based on the mutual credit system. This can be further sub-divided into two: a. Time-based currency also known as Time Banks that use time as a measure of value. An example is Dane County Time Bank. b. Trade exchanges and LETS (local exchange trading system) that use price as a measure of value. An example of local currency implemented as a trade exchange is Bay Bucks in the Bay Area of California, USA. LETS were originally started in Vancouver, Canada, there are presently more than 30 LETS systems operating in Canada and over 400 in the United Kingdom. Australia, France, New Zealand, and Switzerland have similar systems. List of local currencies Africa ;Kenya: *Bangla-Pesa{https://qz.com/86618/introducing-the-bangla-pesa-kenyas- beautiful-new-complementary-currency/} ;South Africa: *Community Exchange System (CES) *Ora Asia ;Korea: *Gyeonggi ProvinceGyeonggi-do Local Currency Retrieved on 2020-09-04. ;Japan: *Fureai kippu ;Malaysia: *Kelantanese dinar North America ;Canada: See here: List of community currencies in Canada ;United States: See here: List of community currencies in the United States ;Mexico: *AmanatliConoce las monedas alternativas que circulan en México Retrieved on 2019-12-21. *CaribeConoce las monedas alternativas que circulan en México Retrieved on 2019-12-21. *FaustoConoce las monedas alternativas que circulan en México Retrieved on 2019-12-21. *ItacateConoce las monedas alternativas que circulan en México Retrieved on 2019-12-21. *KuniConoce las monedas alternativas que circulan en México Retrieved on 2019-12-21. *TúminTúmin, moneda alternativa en México Retrieved on 2019-12-21. South America ;Argentina: *Crédito International *Community Exchange System (CES) *Ven by Hub Culture Europe ;Austria: *TriestingTaler"Triestingtaler" pumpte schon 300.000 Euro in die Region, wirtschaftspressedienst.at, 13 May 2005 ;France: *Abeille *EuskoThe French region with a new currency BBC (www.bbc.com). April 19, 2019. Retrieved on 2019-05-01. *KrôkôLe Krôcô, monnaie locale complémentaire de Nîmes & alentours Retrieved on 2019-12-21. *Occitan ;Germany: *Approximately 300 Tauschringe (comparable to LETS) *Chiemgauer *Urstromtaler ;Greece: *IliosIlios ;Italy: *Simec ;Russia: *Kolion ;Slovakia: *Zvolenský živec ;Spain: * Recurs Econòmic Ciutadà (Barcelona) ;Switzerland: * WIR franc (since 1934)Lila Erard, "Le Farinet, monnaie locale 100% valaisanne, verra le jour début 2017", Le temps, 18 November 2016 (page visited on 18 November 2016). * Reka-Check (since 1940) * Léman * Farinet (since 2017)The criminal who inspired a new currency BBC (www.bbc.com). June 27, 2017. Retrieved on 2017-06-28. ;United Kingdom:See here: List of community currencies in the United Kingdom See also *Barter *Bitcoin *Buy local *Collaborative finance *Conder token *Emissions Reduction Currency System for community based initiatives aimed at emission reduction *Fiscal localism *Informal sector (aka informal economy) *Local exchange trading system *Local multiplier effect *Schumacher Center for New Economics *Scrip *Sharing economy *Time-based currency References Further reading * People Powered Money: designing, developing and delivering community currencies (2015) Community Currencies in Action (https://neweconomics.org/uploads/files/0dba46d13aa81f0fe3_zhm62ipns.pdf PDF]) * An overview of parallel, local and community currency systems by DeMeulenaere, S (1998) Complementary Currency Resource Centre * An economic analysis of contemporary local currencies in the United States by Krohn, G and Snyder, A (2008) International Journal of Community Currency Research, Vol. 12, pages 53–68 Freiwirtschaft Localism (politics) Monetary reform Community building "
"In the security engineering subspecialty of computer science, a trusted system is a system that is relied upon to a specified extent to enforce a specified security policy. This is equivalent to saying that a trusted system is one whose failure would break a security policy (if a policy exists that the trusted system is trusted to enforce). The meaning of the word "trust" is critical, as it does not carry the meaning that might be expected in everyday usage. A system trusted by a user, is one that the user feels safe to use, and trusts to do tasks without secretly executing harmful or unauthorised programs; while trusted computing refers to whether programs can trust the platform to be unmodified from that expected, whether or not those programs are innocent, malicious or execute tasks that are undesired by the user. Trusted system can also be seen as level base security system where protection is provided and handled according to different levels. This is commonly found in military, where information is categorized as unclassified(U), confidential(C), Secret(S), Top secret(TS) and beyond. These also enforces the policies of No-read up and No-write down. Trusted systems in classified information A subset of trusted systems ("Division B" and "Division A") implement mandatory access control (MAC) labels; as such, it is often assumed that they can be used for processing classified information. However, this is generally untrue. There are four modes in which one can operate a multilevel secure system: multilevel mode, compartmented mode, dedicated mode, and system-high mode. The National Computer Security Center's "Yellow Book" specifies that B3 and A1 systems can only be used for processing a strict subset of security labels, and only when operated according to a particularly strict configuration. Central to the concept of U.S. Department of Defense- style "trusted systems" is the notion of a "reference monitor", which is an entity that occupies the logical heart of the system and is responsible for all access control decisions. Ideally, the reference monitor is (a) tamper- proof, (b) always invoked, and (c) small enough to be subject to independent testing, the completeness of which can be assured. Per the U.S. National Security Agency's 1983 Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC), or "Orange Book", a set of "evaluation classes" were defined that described the features and assurances that the user could expect from a trusted system. Key to the provision of the highest levels of assurance (B3 and A1) is the dedication of significant system engineering toward minimization of the complexity (not size, as often cited) of the trusted computing base (TCB), defined as that combination of hardware, software, and firmware that is responsible for enforcing the system's security policy. An inherent engineering conflict would appear to arise in higher-assurance systems in that, the smaller the TCB, the larger the set of hardware, software, and firmware that lies outside the TCB and is, therefore, untrusted. Although this may lead the more technically naive to sophists' arguments about the nature of trust, the argument confuses the issue of "correctness" with that of "trustworthiness". In contrast to the TCSEC's precisely defined hierarchy of six evaluation classes--the highest of which, A1, is featurally identical to B3, differing only in documentation standards--the more recently introduced Common Criteria (CC)--which derive from a blend of more or less technically mature standards from various NATO countries--provide a more tenuous spectrum of seven "evaluation classes" that intermix features and assurances in an arguably non-hierarchical manner and lack the philosophic precision and mathematical stricture of the TCSEC. In particular, the CC tolerate very loose identification of the "target of evaluation" (TOE) and support--even encourage --an inter-mixture of security requirements culled from a variety of predefined "protection profiles." While a strong case can be made that even the more seemingly arbitrary components of the TCSEC contribute to a "chain of evidence" that a fielded system properly enforces its advertised security policy, not even the highest (E7) level of the CC can truly provide analogous consistency and stricture of evidentiary reasoning. The mathematical notions of trusted systems for the protection of classified information derive from two independent but interrelated corpora of work. In 1974, David Bell and Leonard LaPadula of MITRE, working under the close technical guidance and economic sponsorship of Maj. Roger Schell, Ph.D., of the U.S. Army Electronic Systems Command (Ft. Hanscom, MA), devised what is known as the Bell-LaPadula model, in which a more or less trustworthy computer system is modeled in terms of objects (passive repositories or destinations for data, such as files, disks, printers) and subjects (active entities--perhaps users, or system processes or threads operating on behalf of those users--that cause information to flow among objects). The entire operation of a computer system can indeed be regarded a "history" (in the serializability-theoretic sense) of pieces of information flowing from object to object in response to subjects' requests for such flows. At the same time, Dorothy Denning at Purdue University was publishing her Ph.D. dissertation, which dealt with "lattice- based information flows" in computer systems. (A mathematical "lattice" is a partially ordered set, characterizable as a directed acyclic graph, in which the relationship between any two vertices is either "dominates," "is dominated by," or neither.) She defined a generalized notion of "labels"--corresponding more or less to the full security markings one encounters on classified military documents, e.g., TOP SECRET WNINTEL TK DUMBO--that are attached to entities. Bell and LaPadula integrated Denning's concept into their landmark MITRE technical report--entitled, Secure Computer System: Unified Exposition and Multics Interpretation--whereby labels attached to objects represented the sensitivity of data contained within the object (though there can be, and often is, a subtle semantic difference between the sensitivity of the data within the object and the sensitivity of the object itself), while labels attached to subjects represented the trustworthiness of the user executing the subject. The concepts are unified with two properties, the "simple security property" (a subject can only read from an object that it dominates [is greater than is a close enough--albeit mathematically imprecise-- interpretation]) and the "confinement property," or "*-property" (a subject can only write to an object that dominates it). (These properties are loosely referred to as "no-read-up" and "no-write-down," respectively.) Jointly enforced, these properties ensure that information cannot flow "downhill" to a repository whence insufficiently trustworthy recipients may discover it. By extension, assuming that the labels assigned to subjects are truly representative of their trustworthiness, then the no-read-up and no-write-down rules rigidly enforced by the reference monitor are provably sufficient to constrain Trojan horses, one of the most general classes of attack (sciz., the popularly reported worms and viruses are specializations of the Trojan horse concept). The Bell-LaPadula model technically only enforces "confidentiality," or "secrecy," controls, i.e., they address the problem of the sensitivity of objects and attendant trustworthiness of subjects to not inappropriately disclose it. The dual problem of "integrity"(i.e., the problem of accuracy, or even provenance of objects) and attendant trustworthiness of subjects to not inappropriately modify or destroy it, is addressed by mathematically affine models; the most important of which is named for its creator, K. J. Biba. Other integrity models include the Clark-Wilson model and Shockley and Schell's program integrity model, "The SeaView Model"Lunt, Teresa & Denning, Dorothy & R. Schell, Roger & Heckman, Mark & R. Shockley, William. (1990). The SeaView Security Model.. IEEE Trans. Software Eng.. 16. 593-607. 10.1109/SECPRI.1988.8114. (Source) An important feature of MACs, is that they are entirely beyond the control of any user. The TCB automatically attaches labels to any subjects executed on behalf of users and files they access or modify. In contrast, an additional class of controls, termed discretionary access controls(DACs), are under the direct control of the system users. Familiar protection mechanisms such as permission bits (supported by UNIX since the late 1960s and--in a more flexible and powerful form--by Multics since earlier still) and access control lists (ACLs) are familiar examples of DACs. The behavior of a trusted system is often characterized in terms of a mathematical model--which may be more or less rigorous depending upon applicable operational and administrative constraints--that takes the form of a finite state machine (FSM) with state criteria, state transition constraints, a set of "operations" that correspond to state transitions (usually, but not necessarily, one), and a descriptive top-level specification (DTLS) which entails a user-perceptible interface (e.g., an API, a set of system calls [in UNIX parlance] or system exits [in mainframe parlance]); each element of which engenders one or more model operations. Trusted systems in trusted computing The Trusted Computing Group creates specifications that are meant to address particular requirements of trusted systems, including attestation of configuration and safe storage of sensitive information. Trusted systems in policy analysis Trusted systems in the context of national or homeland security, law enforcement, or social control policy are systems in which some conditional prediction about the behavior of people or objects within the system has been determined prior to authorizing access to system resources.The concept of trusted systems described here is discussed in Taipale, K.A. (2005). The Trusted Systems Problem: Security Envelopes, Statistical Threat Analysis, and the Presumption of Innocence, Homeland Security - Trends and Controversies, IEEE Intelligent Systems, Vol. 20 No. 5, pp. 80-83 (Sept./Oct. 2005). For example, trusted systems include the use of "security envelopes" in national security and counterterrorism applications, "trusted computing" initiatives in technical systems security, and the use of credit or identity scoring systems in financial and anti-fraud applications; in general, they include any system (i) in which probabilistic threat or risk analysis is used to assess "trust" for decision-making before authorizing access or for allocating resources against likely threats (including their use in the design of systems constraints to control behavior within the system), or (ii) in which deviation analysis or systems surveillance is used to ensure that behavior within systems complies with expected or authorized parameters. The widespread adoption of these authorization-based security strategies (where the default state is DEFAULT=DENY) for counterterrorism, anti-fraud, and other purposes is helping accelerate the ongoing transformation of modern societies from a notional Beccarian model of criminal justice based on accountability for deviant actions after they occur – see Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishment (1764) – to a Foucauldian model based on authorization, preemption, and general social compliance through ubiquitous preventative surveillance and control through system constraints – see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (1975, Alan Sheridan, tr., 1977, 1995). In this emergent model, "security" is geared not towards policing but to risk management through surveillance, exchange of information, auditing, communication, and classification. These developments have led to general concerns about individual privacy and civil liberty and to a broader philosophical debate about the appropriate forms of social governance methodologies. Trusted systems in information theory Trusted systems in the context of information theory is based on the definition of trust as 'Trust is that which is essential to a communication channel but cannot be transferred from a source to a destination using that channel' by Ed Gerck.Feghhi, J. and P. Williams (1998) Trust Points, in Digital Certificates: Applied Internet Security. Addison-Wesley, ; Toward Real-World Models of Trust: Reliance on Received Information In Information Theory, information has nothing to do with knowledge or meaning. In the context of Information Theory, information is simply that which is transferred from a source to a destination, using a communication channel. If, before transmission, the information is available at the destination then the transfer is zero. Information received by a party is that which the party does not expect—as measured by the uncertainty of the party as to what the message will be. Likewise, trust as defined by Gerck has nothing to do with friendship, acquaintances, employee-employer relationships, loyalty, betrayal and other overly-variable concepts. Trust is not taken in the purely subjective sense either, nor as a feeling or something purely personal or psychological—trust is understood as something potentially communicable. Further, this definition of trust is abstract, allowing different instances and observers in a trusted system to communicate based on a common idea of trust (otherwise communication would be isolated in domains), where all necessarily different subjective and intersubjective realizations of trust in each subsystem (man and machines) may coexist.Trust as Qualified Reliance on Information, Part I, The COOK Report on Internet, Volume X, No. 10, January 2002, . Taken together in the model of Information Theory, information is what you do not expect and trust is what you know. Linking both concepts, trust is seen as qualified reliance on received information. In terms of trusted systems, an assertion of trust cannot be based on the record itself, but on information from other information channels.Gregory, John D. (1997). John D. Electronic Legal Records: Pretty Good Authentication? The deepening of these questions leads to complex conceptions of trust which have been thoroughly studied in the context of business relationships.Huemer, L. (1998). Trust in business relations: Economic logic or social interaction? Umeå: Boréa. . It also leads to conceptions of information where the "quality" of information integrates trust or trustworthiness in the structure of the information itself and of the information system(s) in which it is conceived: higher quality in terms of particular definitions of accuracy and precision means higher trustworthiness.Ivanov, K. (1972). Quality-control of information: On the concept of accuracy of information in data banks and in management information systems.The University of Stockholm and The Royal Institute of Technology. An introduction to the calculus of trust (Example: 'If I connect two trusted systems, are they more or less trusted when taken together?') is given in. The IBM Federal Software Group Daly, Christopher. (2004). A Trust Framework for the DoD Network-Centric Enterprise Services (NCES) Environment, IBM Corp., 2004. (Request from the IEEE Computer Society's ISSAA ). has suggested that provides the most useful definition of trust for application in an information technology environment, because it is related to other information theory concepts and provides a basis for measuring trust. In a network centric enterprise services environment, such notion of trust is considered to be requisite for achieving the desired collaborative, service- oriented architecture vision. See also *Accuracy and precision *Computer security *Data quality *Information quality *Trusted computing References External links See also, The Trusted Systems Project, a part of the Global Information Society Project (GISP), a joint research project of the World Policy Institute (WPI) and the Center for Advanced Studies in Sci. & Tech. Policy (CAS). Conceptual systems Security Computer security Computational trust "