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"Semionotiformes is an order of primitive, ray-finned, primarily freshwater fish from the Triassic to the Cretaceous. The best-known genus is Semionotus of Europe and North America. Classification * Order †Semionotiformes Arambourg & Bertin 1958 sensu López-Arbarello 2012 ** Genus ?†Orthurus Kner 1866 ** Genus †Sangiorgioichthys Tintori & Lombardo 2007 ** Genus †Luoxiongichthys Wen et al. 2011 ** Genus †Aphanepygus Bassani 1879 ** Genus †Placidichthys Brito 2000 ** Family †Pleurolepididae Lütken 1871 *** Genus †Pleurolepis Agassiz 1863 non Quenstedt 1852 ** Family †Macrosemiidae Wagner 1860a corrig. Cope 1889 sensu Murray & Wilson 2009 [Macrosemii Wagner 1860a] *** Genus †Eusemius Vetter 1881 *** Genus †Blenniomoeus Costa 1850 [Calignathus Costa 1853] *** Genus †Enchelyolepis Woodward 1918 *** Genus †Palaeomacrosemius Ebert, Lane & Kolbl-Ebert 2016 *** Genus †Voelklichthys Arratia & Schultze 2012 *** Genus †Notagogus Agassiz 1833-1844 [Neonotagogus Bravi 1994] *** Genus †Agoultichthys Murray & Wilson 2009 *** Genus †Histionotus Egerton 1854 *** Genus †Propterus Agassiz 1833-1844 [Rhynchoncodes Costa 1850] *** Genus †Macrosemiocotzus González-Rodríguez, Applegate & Espinosa-Arrubarrena 2004 *** Genus †Legnonotus Egerton 1853 *** Genus †Macrosemius Agassiz 1833-1844 ** Family †Semionotidae Woodward 1890 sensu López-Arbarello 2012 *** Genus †Semionotus Agassiz 1832 *** Genus †Sargodon Plieninger 1847 *** Genus †Lepidotes Agassiz, 1832 *** Genus †ScheenstiaLópez-Arbarello & Sferco, 2011 ** Family †Callipurbeckiidae López- Arbarello 2012 [Paralepidotidae Hadding 1919 ex Lund 1920] *** Genus †Occitanichthys López-Arbarello & Wencker 2016 *** Genus †Semiolepis Lombardo & Tintori 2008 *** Genus †Paralepidotus Stolley 1919 *** Genus †Macrosemimimus Schröder, López-Arbarello & Ebert 2012 *** Genus †Tlayuamichin López-Arbarello & Alvarado-Ortega 2011 *** Genus †Callipurbeckia López-Arbarello 2012 Timeline of genera Hadrodus priscus tooth, Menuha Formation (Upper Cretaceous), southern Israel ImageSize = width:1500px height:auto barincrement:15px PlotArea = left:10px bottom:50px top:10px right:10px Period = from:-299 till:15 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:25 start:-299 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:5 start:-299 TimeAxis = orientation:hor AlignBars = justify Colors = #legends id:CAR value:claret id:ANK value:rgb(0.4,0.3,0.196) id:HER value:teal id:HAD value:green id:OMN value:blue id:black value:black id:white value:white id:paleozoic value:rgb(0.6,0.75,0.55) id:cambrian value:rgb(0.49,0.63,0.33) id:ordovician value:rgb(0,0.57,0.44) id:silurian value:rgb(0.70,0.88,0.71) id:devonian value:rgb(0.8,0.55,0.22) id:carboniferous value:rgb(0.4,0.65,0.6) id:permian value:rgb(0.94,0.25,0.24) id:mesozoic value:rgb(0.38,0.77,0.79) id:triassic value:rgb(0.51,0.17,0.57) id:jurassic value:rgb(0.2,0.7,0.79) id:cretaceous value:rgb(0.5,0.78,0.31) id:cenozoic value:rgb(0.95,0.98,0.11) id:paleogene value:rgb(0.99,0.6,0.32) id:neogene value:rgb(0.999999,0.9,0.1) id:quaternary value:rgb(0.98,0.98,0.50) BarData= bar:eratop bar:space bar:periodtop bar:space bar:NAM1 bar:NAM2 bar:NAM3 bar:NAM4 bar:NAM5 bar:NAM6 bar:NAM7 bar:NAM8 bar:NAM9 bar:NAM10 bar:NAM11 bar:NAM12 bar:NAM13 bar:NAM14 bar:NAM15 bar:NAM16 bar:NAM17 bar:NAM18 bar:NAM19 bar:NAM20 bar:NAM21 bar:NAM22 bar:NAM23 bar:NAM24 bar:NAM25 bar:NAM26 bar:NAM27 bar:NAM28 bar:NAM29 bar:NAM30 bar:NAM31 bar:NAM32 bar:NAM33 bar:space bar:period bar:space bar:era PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(7,-4) bar:periodtop from: -299 till: -251 color:permian text:Permian from: -251 till: -199.6 color:triassic text:Triassic from: -199.6 till: -145.5 color:jurassic text:Jurassic from: -145.5 till: -65.5 color:cretaceous text:Cretaceous from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neog. from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q. bar:eratop from: -299 till: -251 color:paleozoic text:Paleozoic Era from: -251 till: -65.5 color:mesozoic text:Mesozoic Era from: -65.5 till: 0 color:cenozoic text:Cenozoic PlotData= align:left fontsize:M mark:(line,white) width:5 anchor:till align:left color:permian bar:NAM1 from:-260 till:-253.8 text:Acentrophorus color:permian bar:NAM2 from:-260 till:-199.8 text:Paralepidotus color:triassic bar:NAM3 from:-251 till:-245 text:Archaeolepidotus color:triassic bar:NAM4 from:-251 till:-245 text:Pericentrophus color:triassic bar:NAM5 from:-249.7 till:-237 text:Eosemionotus color:triassic bar:NAM6 from:-245 till:-175.6 text:Semionotus color:triassic bar:NAM7 from:-245 till:-228 text:Alleiolepis color:triassic bar:NAM8 from:-245 till:-228 text:Allelepidotus color:triassic bar:NAM9 from:-245 till:-228 text:Asialepidotus color:triassic bar:NAM10 from:-245 till:-228 text:Enigmatichthys color:triassic bar:NAM11 from:-245 till:-228 text:Sinosemionotus color:triassic bar:NAM12 from:-245 till:-199.6 text:Serrolepis color:triassic bar:NAM13 from:-228.7 till:-216.5 text:Aphelolepis color:triassic bar:NAM14 from:-228.7 till:-216.5 text:Orthurus color:triassic bar:NAM15 from:-228.7 till:-65.5 text:Lepidotus color:triassic bar:NAM16 from:-228.7 till:-203.6 text:Plesiolepidotus color:triassic bar:NAM17 from:-228 till:-199.6 text:Corunegenys color:triassic bar:NAM18 from:-228 till:-199.6 text:Hemicalypterus color:triassic bar:NAM19 from:-228 till:-199.6 text:Pristiosomus color:triassic bar:NAM20 from:-216.5 till:-203.6 text:Dandya color:triassic bar:NAM21 from:-216.5 till:-199.6 text:Sargodon color:triassic bar:NAM22 from:-216.5 till:-171.6 text:Dapedium color:triassic bar:NAM23 from:-203.6 till:-199.6 text:Prolepidotus color:jurassic bar:NAM24 from:-199.6 till:-145.5 text:Prionopleurus color:jurassic bar:NAM25 from:-183 till:-175.6 text:Austrolepidotus color:jurassic bar:NAM26 from:-183 till:-145.5 text:Tetragonolepis color:jurassic bar:NAM27 from:-164.7 till:-149.03 text:Heterostrophus color:jurassic bar:NAM28 from:-155.7 till:-150.8 text:Callopteus color:jurassic bar:NAM29 from:-155.7 till:-150.8 text:Oligopleurus color:cretaceous bar:NAM30 from:-112 till:-70.6 text:Paralepidosteus color:cretaceous bar:NAM31 from:-99.6 till:-93.5 text:Oshunia color:cretaceous bar:NAM32 from:-99.6 till:-93.5 text:Sphathiurus PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 bar:period from: -299 till: -251 color:permian text:Permian from: -251 till: -199.6 color:triassic text:Triassic from: -199.6 till: -145.5 color:jurassic text:Jurassic from: -145.5 till: -65.5 color:cretaceous text:Cretaceous from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neog. from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q. bar:era from: -299 till: -251 color:paleozoic text:Paleozoic Era from: -251 till: -65.5 color:mesozoic text:Mesozoic Era from: -65.5 till: 0 color:cenozoic text:Cenozoic References Prehistoric ray-finned fish orders Lopingian first appearances Late Cretaceous extinctions "
"Grading in education is the process of applying standardized measurements of varying levels of achievement in a course. Grades can be assigned as letters (for example, A through F), as a range (for example, 1 to 6), as a percentage, or as a number out of a possible total (for example, out of 100). In some countries, grades are averaged to create a grade point average (GPA). GPA is calculated by using the number of grade points a student earns in a given period of time.grade point average. (n.d.). WordNet2.0 Retrieved 3 October 2011, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/grade point average GPAs are often calculated for high school, undergraduate, and graduate students, and can be used by potential employers or educational institutions to assess and compare applicants. A cumulative grade point average (CGPA), sometimes referred to as just GPA, is a measure of a student's performance for all of his or her courses. History Yale University historian George W. Pierson writes: "According to tradition the first grades issued at Yale (and possibly the first in the country) were given out in the year 1785, when President Ezra Stiles, after examining 58 Seniors, recorded in his diary that there were 'Twenty Optimi, sixteen second Optimi, twelve Inferiores (Boni), ten Pejores.'" Bob Marlin argues that the concept of grading students' work quantitatively was developed by a tutor named William Farish and first implemented by the University of Cambridge in 1792. That assertion has been questioned by Christopher Stray, who finds the evidence for Farish as the inventor of the numerical mark to be unpersuasive.Christopher Stray, "From Oral to Written Examinations: Cambridge, Oxford and Dublin 1700–1914", History of Universities 20:2 (2005), 94–95. Stray's article also explains the complex relationship between the mode of examination (oral or written) and the varying philosophies of education these modes imply to both the teacher and the student. As a technology, grading both shapes and reflects many fundamental areas of educational theory and practice. Grading systems by country Most nations have their own grading system, and different institutions in a single nation can vary in their grading systems as well. However, several international standards for grading have arisen recently, such as the European Baccalaureate. =England and Wales= In the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exam taken by secondary school students in England and Wales, grades generally range from 9 (highest) to 1 (lowest). These replaced earlier A, B, C... grading. However, in GCSE Science, Mathematics Statistics, and any Modern Foreign Language, there are two tiers (higher and foundation). In the higher tier, grades 9 to 4 can be achieved, while in the foundation tier, only grades 5 to 1 can be awarded. The new 9–1 qualifications saw some more subjects such as English language and English literature go 'tierless,’ with the same paper covering all levels of demand. Generally, a 4 or above would be considered a pass and a 3 or below would be considered a fail by most institutions: for Mathematics and English Language and English Literature, and possibly Science, this would require a resit. If a candidate does not score highly enough to get a grade 1, their results slip will have the letter U for "ungraded", meaning no grade was secured. Other letters such as X also exist in special circumstances. In Wales, the grading is still from A* (highest) to G (lowest) with U a fail. =United States= Most colleges and universities in the United States award a letter grade A (best), B, C, D, or F (fail) for each class taken (potentially with + or - modifiers). These letter grades are then used to calculate a GPA from 0 to 4.0 using a formula, where 4.0 is the best. The average GPA is 3.3 at private institutions and 3.0 at public institutions. Various colleges, such as Evergreen State College and Hampshire College, do not use traditional grades. Brown University, an Ivy League school, does not calculate grade point averages, and all classes can be taken on a pass/fail basis. Additionally, several high schools have decided to forgo grades. A notable example is Saint Ann's School in Brooklyn, which was ranked by the Wall Street Journal as the number one high school in the country for having the highest percentage of graduating seniors enroll in Ivy League and several other highly selective colleges.2 April 2004 Wall Street Journal, Cover Story (Personal Journal) GPA in the United States job market According to a study published in 2014, a one-point increase in high-school GPA translated to an 11.85% increase in annual earnings for men and 13.77% for women in the United States. College students often wonder how much weight GPA carries in their employment prospects. In many fields, work experience (such as internships) gained during one's time in college are the most important factors that employers consider. Other factors include choice of major, volunteering, choice of extracurricular activities, relevance of coursework, GPA, and the reputation of one's college. The relative importance of these factors do vary between professions, but for a graduate's first job out of college, GPA is often quite high on the list of factors that employers consider. There is also criticism about using grades as an indicator in employment. Armstrong (2012) claimed that the relationship between grades and job performance is low and becoming lower in recent studies. Grade inflation at American colleges over recent decades has also played a role in the devaluation of grades. =India= Different educational boards use different metrics in awarding grades to students, along with the marks obtained in most cases. Central Board of Secondary Education follows positional grading system where grades are given on basis of the position of the student, if the student is in top 1/8th ranks the grade is A1, next 1/8th A2, next 1/8th B1 and so on.. This grading system is based on relative position of student rather than the actual marks by the student, it compares marks of different students and then a grade is given. =Nepal= In Nepal, grading systems are of two types. In SEE Board, the grade point is calculated on the basis of range of marks obtained by students. For instance; Two students who score 86 and 89 respectively out of 100 full marks, then they are both included under A grade. While in NEB (National Examination Board), the grade points are awarded according to the actual marks obtained by the student but not according to range. For calculating GPA, the average of ranges of marks obtained is taken in SEE while, only average of marks is taken in NEB. This process is irreversible in case of SEE if someone wants to convert GPA to Percentage. See also * Grading on a curve * Sudbury school, a school model for ages 4 through 18 with schools internationally with no grading or grade levels References Academic transfer Education reform Educational evaluation methods Student assessment and evaluation "
"Assimilation may refer to: Culture *Cultural assimilation, the process whereby a minority group gradually adapts to the customs and attitudes of the prevailing culture and customs **Language shift, also known as language assimilation, the progressive process whereby a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language **Cultural assimilation of Native Americans in the United States **Jewish assimilation refers to the gradual cultural assimilation and social integration of Jews in their surrounding culture *Assimilation effect, a frequently observed bias in social cognition *Religious assimilation *Assimilation (French colonial), an ideological basis of French colonial policy in the 19th and 20th centuries Science *Assimilation (biology) the conversion of nutrient into the fluid or solid substance of the body, by the processes of digestion and absorption *Assimilation (phonology), a linguistic process by which a sound becomes similar to an adjacent sound *Assimilation (meteorology), the process of objectively adapting the model state (of a numerical weather prediction model) to observations in a statistical optimal way taking into account model and observation errors *Assimilation (psychology), incorporation of new concepts into existing schemes Media *Assimilation (album), a 2001 album by Deliverance *Assimilation (Star Trek), process used by the fictional Borg in Star Trek *Assimilate: A Critical History of Industrial Music, a 2013 non- fiction book *Assimilate, a 2018 film starring Joel Courtney "